General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century: description, features and interesting facts

The 19th century is one of the most significant in Russian literature. It was this era that gave the world the names of great classics who influenced not only Russian but also world culture. The main ideas characteristic of the literature of this time are the growth of the human soul, the struggle of good against evil, the triumph of morality and purity.

Difference from the previous century

Giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the previous century was characterized by very calm development. Throughout the previous century, poets and writers sang the dignity of man and tried to instill high moral ideals. And only at the end of the century more daring and daring works began to appear - the authors began to focus on human psychology, his experiences and feelings.

Realistic novel

In the second half of the century, realistic prose developed. Romantic ideals turned out to be untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a concept as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general description briefly represents a list of important features of this period and the prerequisites for the occurrence of certain phenomena. As for Dostoevsky's realistic prose, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author became a reaction to the mood that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting prototypes of people he knew in his works, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.

In the first decades, the country glorified Mikhail Kutuzov, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. The general characteristics of the end of the century can be summed up in a few words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the entire people, but its individual representatives that came to the fore. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person.”

Reasons for the rise

While working on homework or a report on the topic “General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century,” a student may have a natural question: what caused these changes, why was literature able to reach such a high level of development? The reason for this was social events - the war with Turkey, the invasion of Napoleonic troops, the abolition of serfdom, and the public reprisal of oppositionists. All this contributed to the fact that completely new stylistic techniques began to be used in literature. When working on the general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth mentioning that this era rightfully went down in history as the “Golden Age”.

Answer

The 17th century was the last century of chronicle writing in Rus'. “The New Chronicler” describes events from the reign of Ivan the Terrible until the end of the “Troubles.” “The New Chronicler” clearly, concisely and logically substantiates the rights of the Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.

The main role in the literature of the 17th century was occupied by works of historical themes. A feature of books on historical subjects of the 17th century was their vivid journalism. The largest and most famous historical literary work of the 17th century is “The Legend of the Cellarer to the Trinity - Sergeyev Lavra by Abraham Palitsyn.” In this work, the author tells his understanding of the Time of Troubles, discusses the causes of the “Troubles” and its events.

In Russian literature of the 17th century, a great, lively interest in history is manifested. Historical works of a general nature appear. In the 70s of the 17th century, the first historical book “Synopsis” (review) appeared. It was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gisela. Gisel's work told the stories of Russia and Ukraine from the very beginning, from the moment of the formation of Kievan Rus. In the 17th-18th centuries, the book “Synopsis” was used as a textbook on Russian history.

There were several more valuable handwritten works in the literature of the 17th century. The book “Scythian Stories”, authored by A.I. Lyzlov, describes the struggle of the Russian people and Europeans with the “Scythians”. The author classified the Mongol-Tatars and Turks as “Scythians”. The value of Lyzlov’s work lies in the fact that in the book he skillfully combined the knowledge of Russian and European sources, creating a fairly truthful and clear picture of what was happening.

The literature of the 17th century included not only historical narratives of the distant past. In this century, events took place that deserved the attention of modern writers. “The Tale of the Azov Siege” tells about the Azov campaigns. The basis of the story was the capture of a Turkish fortress by the Don Cossacks. The author of this remarkable work has not been identified, but there is a possibility that it is the head of the military chancellery, Fyodor Poroshin. This is the riddle that the literature of the 17th century left us.

Books with moral content also occupied their niche in the literature of the 17th century. The Lives of the Saints became widespread. The autobiography of the Old Believers ideologist Avvakum, “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum,” was also very popular.

In the literature of the 17th century, new genres for Russian literature were actively emerging. Satirical stories and book poetry appear. Subsequently, these genres occupied their own special niche in Russian literature.

Lesson plan on literature on the topic: Introduction. Historical and literary process and periodization of Russian literature. The originality of literature.

Organization: State educational institution of the Republic of Khakassia of secondary vocational education "Montenegrin Mining and Construction College"

Goals:

Reveal the originality of Russian classical literature of the 19th century.

Help the student to be constantly involved in the process of thinking.

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Complicating the semantic function of students’ speech.

Teach students to summarize and systematize the material.

Task:

Ensuring students’ emotional involvement in their own activities and the activities of others.

Lesson type:

Communicating knowledge and skills.

Plan:

Periodization of Russian literature.

The originality of literature.

“Only the young can call old age a time of peace.”

(S. Lukyanenko)

During the classes:

Organizing time.

Updating basic knowledge and skills:

questions about the school curriculum.

1. “I am incredibly proud not only of the abundance of talents born in Russia in the 19th century, but also of their amazing diversity” (M. Gorky).

How do you understand these words?

1. What talented poets and writers is M. Gorky talking about?

   (Of course, about such famous writers and poets as A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, who entered the “golden age” of Russian literature; I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, etc.).

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New topic. Teacher's word.

1. Introduction. Dictionary:

Questions for students:

What does the word intelligentsia mean?

What does the word ideal mean?

What does the word raznochinets mean?

What does the word revolutionary mean?

What does the word liberal mean?

Intelligentsia

– people of mental work with education and special knowledge in various fields of science, technology, and culture.

Ideal

– The perfect embodiment of something (in other words, this is the best that exists).

Revolutionary

- a person who makes a revolution, opens up new paths in some area of ​​life, in science, in production.

Raznochinets

- in pre-revolutionary Russia: a native of petty bureaucracy, engaged in mental work. Various ranks: teachers, doctors, engineers, etc.

1. Historical and literary process.

In Russia, literature has always been in alliance with the liberation movement. The powerless situation of one part of the population (peasants) against the backdrop of the easy life of the noble class helped to attract attention to the problem of serfdom on the part of enlightened and humane representatives of the educated class, and inspired their sympathy and compassion. First of all, this applied to writers.

Inevitable clashes and ideological conflicts were hidden in the very essence of Russian life, and a writer who penetrated into this essence could not help but notice them. Many Russian writers did not share revolutionary beliefs. Everyone, however, agreed that fundamental changes were needed in Russia. The West has already gone through a series of revolutionary upheavals, but Russia has not yet experienced them. The revolutions that died down in the West brought people more disappointments than joys. The best hopes turned out to be unjustified.

The greatest innovation of Russian literature lies in the interweaving of its destinies with the destinies of the Russian revolution. By the end of the 19th century, Russia had accumulated such an amount of energy that humanity had never had at any time. And this was attested to by Russian literature.

Pushkin gave Russian literature both a national and universal character. Pushkin is a like-minded person of the first generation of Russian revolutionaries.

The main provisions of the features of the literary process of the second half of the 19th century:

1)

Russia is faced with a choice of future development paths; the main questions are: “Who is to blame?” and “What should I do?” A decisive democratization of fiction. Civic pathos of literature.

2)

Specialization of literature: Goncharov, Tolstoy - epics, Levitov, Uspensky - essayists, Ostrovsky - playwright, etc.

3)

The plots of the novels are simple, local, family-based, but through the plots the artists of the word rise to universal human problems: the relationship of the hero with the world, the interpenetration of the elements of life, renunciation of personal good, shame for one’s own well-being, epic maximalism, reluctance to participate in the imperfections of the world.

4)

The new hero reflects the state of the individual in an era of social transformation; he, like the whole country, is on the path to self-awareness, the awakening of the personal principle. The heroes of different works (Turgenev, Goncharov, Chernyshevsky, Dostoevsky) are polemical in relation to each other, but this feature unites them.

5)

Increased demands on a person's personality. Self-sacrifice is a national trait. The good of others is the highest moral value. Personality, according to Tolstoy, is represented in the form of a fraction:

moral qualities

Self-esteem

6)

Both Tolstoy and Chernyshevsky see the source of Russian strength and Russian wisdom in popular feeling. The fate of man in unity with the fate of the people did not result in the humiliation of the personal principle. On the contrary, at the highest stage of spiritual development, the hero comes to the people (the epic novel “War and Peace”).

3.3. Periodization of Russian literature.

1st period:

1825-1861 – noble;

2nd period:

1861-1895 – raznochinsky;

3rd period:

1895-… proletarian.

Peasant unrest swept across the country. The issue of liberating the peasants has become very urgent. The rise of peasant unrest caused a rise in public opinion. Since 1859

Two historical forces stand out: revolutionary democrats and liberals.

1. The originality of literature.

The second half of the 19th century is a “golden” time, but unlike the first half, the second half has its own characteristics associated with social conditions. In the literature of the first half of the 19th century, the hero was a nobleman - an “extra” person who approached great things, but was spoiled by his upbringing. By the beginning of the second half of the 19th century, the nobility had exhausted its progressive capabilities and began to revive: Pechorin and Onegin gradually turned into Oblomov.

The nobility leaves the stage of political struggle. They are being replaced by commoners. The emergence of commoners on the stage of political struggle did not occur without the merit of Russian literature. Russian literature is the literature of social thought.

And also, numerous “whys” related to social life and human relationships constantly arose before thinking people. Literature has taken the path of a comprehensive study of life.

In the literature of the 19th century, styles and views, artistic means and artistic ideas are closely intertwined. As a result of the interaction of all these trends, realism begins to take shape in Russia as a completely new stage in literature’s understanding of man and his life. The founder of this direction is considered to be A.S.
Pushkin. Its basis is the principle of life’s truth, which guides the artist in his work, striving to give a complete and true reflection of life.
Critical realism was based on positive ideals - patriotism, sympathy for the oppressed masses, the search for a positive hero in life, faith in the bright future of Russia.

Consolidation.

Questions for consolidation:

1. What are the main provisions of the features of the literary process of the second half of the 19th century?

   What are the periods of the Russian liberation movement?

   What is the uniqueness of Russian literature?

Homework:________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Estimates, conclusions.

In Russia in the 19th century, literature experienced an unprecedented rise and became an equal part of the cultural process. This era is usually characterized as the “golden age”, the time of the heyday of creativity and the emergence of philosophical thought, the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. Literary centrism is an important feature. From the works of writers of that time, we learn humanity, patriotism, and study our history. More than one generation of people – Humans – has grown up on this “classic”. Romanticism became the leading artistic method, although at the end of the 30s of the 19th century realism would take a leading place in literature.

Russian literature is distinguished by its humanity, purposefulness and humanity, striving to express its opinion. In Russia, philosophy is individual. One of the main problems is the problem of morality; each author has his own solutions to this problem. Moral issues became the main one and almost all Russians wrote and converged on the formation of high ideals. What is high in Russia is overcoming selfishness and individualism. And the high, active, heroic attitude is the most demanding for Russian writers. In Russia it has never been possible to live a separate destiny. Russian society is always collective. The Russian liter is characterized by moral choices for oneself and for the whole world. Russ the author showed life in community with the whole world. The epic nature of thinking is connected with this: Russian heroes always communicate with the nation; Gogol Tolstoy’s heroes. This soil was very good. favorable for the development of novels. Russ's novels had a great influence on the West. The heroes were colossal; they were not familiar to the reader; the Russians knew how to address the question of existence. But the essence is also the opposite moment when the authors penetrated into the national. In order to consider this issue in more detail, you can turn to Kasyanova’s work “Russian national character”; in the book she says that a Russian person is characterized by a value system, for example, the ability to achieve a goal. Russia and the West have different goals in life. The idea of ​​cultivating high feelings and ideals is high, and high is selfishness.

The global significance of literature is closely related to national identity: romantics turn to national events, since the 19th century is the century of epoch-making events on a global scale (the War of 1812), these are changes in public consciousness, a pronounced spirit of patriotism. The reforms of 1861 lead to the polarization of social consciousness and the sense of personality finds its expression in the images of literature. For example, the era of Decembrism gives rise to the ideal of a free personality, thus the theme of a free personality becomes central. The activities of writers were not limited to their subjective spiritual world: they actively showed interest in public life, folklore works and interacted with foreign writers. Therefore, the literature of the 19th century has a global coverage of the entire socio-political life of that time and reflects the worldview of its era. National identity is reflected in the typology of portraits of people, generalization of their vices and pronounced personality traits: 1) In the center is a liter. 19 in the problem of growing a sense of personality: the image of a young man does not satisfy the modern way of life 2). A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.

• 3).National atmosphere in literature, development of Russian national character
• 4).Condemnation by writers of the isolation of the intelligentsia from the people, as isolation from their roots. 5).ideal of personality - the relationship of one person with the existence of the entire people (lack of egocentrism, self-will)
• 6) the writer’s attention to psychological and social analysis. You can also refer to Belinsky’s work on the Russian liter. At school, this question can be used in introductory Russian lessons of the 19th century. For example, maybe such a topic as thin liters as an art form

Literature focus

Russian literature of that time was distinguished by a very bold formulation of questions about the meaning of human existence, about the most pressing socio-political, moral and ethical problems. She extends the significance of these questions far beyond the boundaries of her historical era. When preparing a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one must remember that it became one of the most powerful means of influencing both Russian and foreign readers, acquiring the reputation of an influential force in the development of education.

Phenomenon of the era

If you need to give a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century briefly, it can be noted that a common feature of this era was such a phenomenon as “literary centrism.” This means that literature became a way of communicating ideas and opinions in political debates. It turned into a powerful tool for expressing ideology, defining value guidelines and ideals.

It is impossible to say for sure whether this is good or bad. Of course, giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one can reproach the literature of that time for being too “preachy”, “instructive”. After all, it is often said that the desire to become a prophet can lead to inappropriate guardianship. And this is fraught with the development of intolerance towards dissent of any kind. Of course, there is some truth in such reasoning, however, when giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is necessary to take into account the historical realities in which the writers, poets, and critics of that time lived. A. I. Herzen, when he found himself in exile, described this phenomenon as follows: “For a people who have been deprived of freedom of speech and self-expression, literature remains almost the only outlet.”

The role of literature in society

N.G. Chernyshevsky said practically the same thing: “Literature in our country still concentrates the entire mental life of the people.” Here it is worth paying attention to the word “yet.” Chernyshevsky, who argued that literature is a textbook of life, still recognized that the mental life of the people should not be constantly concentrated in it. However, “for now”, in those conditions of Russian reality, it was she who took on this function.

Modern society should be grateful to those writers and poets who, in difficult social conditions, despite persecution (it is worth remembering N. G. Chernyshevsky, F. M. Dostoevsky and others), with the help of their works contributed to the awakening of a bright person in a person, spirituality, integrity, active opposition to evil, honesty and mercy. Taking all this into account, we can agree with the opinion expressed by N. A. Nekrasov in his message to Leo Tolstoy in 1856: “The role of a writer in our country is, first of all, the role of a teacher.”

Literature of the second half of the 19th century in Russia

At this time, social movements emerged in Russia - Slavophiles and Westerners. Westerners believed that the development of the country began with the reforms of Peter I and it was necessary to continue along this path. It should be noted that they had a disdainful attitude towards pre-Petrine Rus'; they noted that at that time there was no culture and history worthy of respect.

Slavophiles opposed orientation to the West and favored the independent development of Russia.

A popular movement among Westerners was radical. It was based on the utopian teachings of Saint-Simon and Fourier with an emphasis on socialism. This movement, its most radical wing, was of the opinion that revolution is the only way in which something can be changed in the country. Slavophiles, on the other hand, believed that the history of Russia is no less rich than Western civilization, which suffered from lack of faith, individualism and was disillusioned with spiritual values.

In 1860, the Pochvenniki movement was born; it tried to overcome the polarity of opinions. Its ideologists were F. Dostoevsky, A. Grigoriev, N. Strakhov. They rejected Western bourgeois democracy and the autocratic democratic system. Accusing the West of lack of spirituality, Dostoevsky said that an “enlightened society” should merge with the “people’s soil”, this will help the lower classes and the upper classes enrich each other. A negative attitude towards materialism and revolution, emphasizing the moral and religious principles are the main principles of the Pochvenniks. A.S. Pushkin was for them the personification of the Russian spirit.

The literature of the second half of the 19th century is distinguished by such a feature as nihilism. Soil scientists saw him as the main threat to reality. Nihilism was extremely popular in Russian society. Adherents of nihilism rejected accepted norms of behavior and cultural values. Moral principles were replaced, and personal pleasures were placed above all else. Bazarov, in I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons,” is the most prominent representative of nihilism.

Russian writers are influenced by foreign authors, primarily by realistic novels: O. Balzac “Shagreen Skin”, Charlotte Bronte “Jane Eyre”, W. Thackeray “Vanity Fair”, Charles Dickens “Oliver Twist”, etc.

General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century: table

The “Golden Age” is a time of writers of completely different literary movements. First, let's look at them in a summary table, after which each of the directions will be considered in more detail.

Russian literature of this era reflected the leap that was made in the previous century. The “Golden Age” began mainly with the flourishing of two movements - sentimentalism and romanticism. Since the middle of the century, the direction of realism has become increasingly powerful. This is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century. The tablet will help the student navigate the main movements and representatives of the “Golden Age”. In the process of preparing for the lesson, it should be mentioned that the further socio-political situation in the country is becoming more and more tense, and contradictions between the oppressed classes and the common people are growing. This leads to the fact that in the middle of the century the development of poetry somewhat subsides. And the end of the era is accompanied by revolutionary sentiments.

Reflecting on the role of literature in the destinies of mankind, the great proletarian writer M. Gorky argued that not a single literature of the West arose with such force and speed, in such a powerful, dazzling brilliance of talent, as Russian literature, no one in Europe created such large, all books recognized by the world, no one has created such wondrous beauties under such indescribably difficult conditions as Russian writers. And the rapid development of Russian literature, and its exceptionally high ideological and artistic level, and its global influence - all this, as you know, became possible thanks to her connections with the liberation movement, her active participation in this movement.

In an environment of blatant social oppression, literature should have become and indeed became the focus of liberating, civic ideas. Once again, recall in your memory the works of Russian classics that are well known to you: Woe from Wit, the lyrics of Pushkin and Lermontov, Dead Souls, Fathers and Sons, What to Do? and others. For all their differences, they absorbed the advanced ideas of the time. Drawing strength from the liberation movement, the great Russian writers, as you have seen, themselves had a tremendous impact on its development and on the life of society as a whole. In our mental movement,” Chernyshevsky said about Russian literature, “it plays a more significant role than French, German, English in the mental movement of their peoples, and it bears more responsibilities than any other literature... The poet and fiction writers are not replaceable by anyone... The writers themselves realized this. Hence the deep sense of responsibility to the people, to Russia, which was characteristic of them: it was in our country that the type of writer arose - a citizen, a fighter, a man of unshakable, often hard-won convictions, and high moral principles.

The best Russian writers consciously took the path of serving society, seeing this as the highest purpose of art. It is no coincidence that the theme of the poet and poetry runs through all Russian literature. You remember numerous poems on this topic (by Ryleev, Pushkin, Lermontov, Nekrasov). Chekhov superbly expressed the idea of ​​the high purpose of art and the responsibility of the writer. For him, a true writer is an obligated person, contracted by the consciousness of his duty and conscience.

When Russian literature gained worldwide recognition, foreign readers acutely felt its originality and unsurpassed power. She captivated them with her bold invasion of life, her intense search for truth, her heroes, full of high goals, always dissatisfied with themselves. I was struck by the sense of responsibility for the future of one’s country and humanity, which never left Andrei Bolkonsky, Pierre, Raskolnikov, or Prince Myshkin for a minute. Russian writers, said one Turkish critic, demand a lot from people, they do not agree that people put their interests and their egoism in the foreground.

Advanced Russian literature has always lived with the most important, burning problems of the century.

Painful questions, damned questions, great questions - this is how, for decades, those social, philosophical, and moral problems that were raised by the best writers of the past were characterized.

You could see that, starting with Radishchev and ending with Chekhov, Russian writers of the 19th century spoke with merciless frankness about the moral degeneration of the ruling classes, about the arbitrariness and impunity of some and the lack of rights of others, about social inequality, about the material and spiritual enslavement of man. Remember such works as Dead Souls, Crime and Punishment, Shchedrin's fairy tales, Who Lives Well in Rus', Resurrection. Their authors approached the solution of the most pressing problems of our time from the position of true humanism, from the position of the interests of the people. You know what hatred the best Russian writers had for the oppressors, for tyranny, for the perpetrators of social disasters and personal human tragedies.

No matter what aspects of life they touched, from the pages of their works one could always hear: who is to blame?, what to do? These questions were heard in Eugene Onegin and in Hero of Our Time, in Oblomov and in Groza, in Crime and Punishment, in Chekhov's stories and drama.

Revealing the role of the environment and historical conditions in the formation of man, writers at the same time tried to understand whether a person can withstand the influence of the life circumstances surrounding him. Is he free to choose his life path or are circumstances to blame for everything? Ultimately, is a person responsible for what happens in the world around him or not? All these questions are extremely complex, and writers painfully searched for answers to them. In this regard, think again about Evgeny Onegin, the Hero of our time, about the novel What to Do?, about Ionych. You probably remember the words of Bazarov: Every person must educate himself... And as for time, why will I depend on it? It’s better to let it depend on me.

Who is to blame?, what to do? - these questions excited the consciousness and encouraged Russian and foreign readers to take active action. The writers themselves could find different solutions, sometimes even erroneous ones, but the search for these solutions spoke of their deep interest in the fate of the country and all humanity.

The idea of ​​the welfare of the people was constantly heard in the works of Russian classics. From this angle they looked at everything around them, at the past and the future. The depiction of life phenomena, especially significant for the people, and their assessment from the point of view of their interests gave rise to that property of literature, which, as you remember, is called nationality. The nationality of our literature, due to the connection of writers with the liberation movement, constitutes one of its highest ideological and aesthetic achievements. The writers themselves felt themselves to be flesh and blood of the people, and this gave their work a clearly expressed democratic orientation. And my incorruptible voice was the echo of the Russian people,” said young Pushkin. Lermontov's voice sounded like a bell on a veche tower on days of celebration and troubles of the people. And Nekrasov, as if summing up the results of his creative activity, said in his declining years: I dedicated the lyre to my people.

The nationality of Russian classical literature is inextricably linked with its other characteristic feature - patriotism. Anxiety for the fate of the native country, pain caused by the troubles it endured, the desire to look into the future and faith in it - all this was inherent in the great writers of the Russian land, with all the differences in their ideological positions and their creative talents.

For advanced Russian writers, love for the homeland is, first of all, love for people's Russia, for the spiritual values ​​that the people created. Literature has long found inspiration in oral folk art. Remember the fairy tales of Pushkin and Shchedrin, Evenings on a farm near Dikanka by Gogol, Who lives well in Rus' by Nekrasov. At the same time, true patriots have always hated the stranglers of progressive thought, the executioners of Freedom, Genius and Glory. With what crushing force Lermontov expressed these feelings in his poems Farewell, unwashed Russia... and Motherland! How ironically and evilly Tolstoy speaks about anti-people Russia in War and Peace and with what love for the people the pages of this epic dedicated to him are imbued! The best Russian writers considered their highest patriotic duty to be the struggle for the reconstruction of life, for the good of the people, for human dignity.

All these ideological aspirations inevitably pushed Russian writers onto the path of a comprehensive knowledge of life. It was necessary to understand the inner meaning of what was happening, to understand the reasons for the complex and contradictory processes taking place in the world of social relations and in the human psyche. And of course, the more fully life was revealed to writers in the process of cognition, the more acutely they felt the need for its reconstruction.

The urgent need to understand life determined the main direction in the development of Russian literature of the 19th century - the direction of critical realism. The desire for complete truth (Turgenev) completely dominated the talent and conscience of the great writers of the century. It was this desire that determined the character of Russian realism—its fearlessness in revealing the most complex phenomena of life, uncompromisingness in exposing social evil, and insight in elucidating its causes.

Various aspects of reality fell into the sphere of attention of realist writers (as Chernyshevsky said, everything that is generally interesting in life): from the events of the historical life of peoples and states (Poltava, War and Peace) to the fate of a little man (The Overcoat, Poor People); from processes of world-historical significance (the Patriotic War of 1812) to the most profound emotional experiences. And everything was analyzed, everything was the subject of intense thought. It was not for nothing that Gorky noted that in the field of vision of the old writers lay the entire vast world, the world that they wanted to free from evil at all costs.

Closely connected with reality, the literature of critical realism captured all the changes that took place in the life of Russia, in human psychology. Over time, the appearance of the central character changed. You will unmistakably determine which time stamp lies on Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin; it is obvious to you that, with all their differences, Bazarov, Rakhmetov, Raskolnikov belong to approximately the same era; Turgenev historically accurately captured in his novels the type of Russian progressive figure at different stages of social development.

Moving from decade to decade, you could not help but notice what new facets, new shades the themes that ran through all Russian literature of the 19th century acquired. So, in the era of the 20-30s, Pushkin spoke about the role of the people in history, about the love of freedom of the people (the people are always secretly inclined to confusion). On the verge of the 40-50s, Turgenev in Notes of a Hunter came out with a passionate defense of the enslaved people, showing their moral superiority over the soul-owners.

In the conditions of the growing national liberation movement of the 50-60s, writers of revolutionary democracy (Nekrasov, Shchedrin) sought to show not only the strength of the people, but also their weakness. They set themselves the task of helping the people overcome the inertia and passivity generated by centuries of slavery, and raising the people to an awareness of their fundamental interests. You know what indignation arouses in Nekrasov the slavish consciousness of a man from the people, how bitter Shchedrin’s laughter is at a peasant who twisted a rope for himself.

In an era of breakdown in social relations, when the old was irrevocably collapsing before everyone’s eyes, and the new was just taking shape (Lenin), in the conditions of the growth of the liberation movement, the role of the masses in history was clearly revealed. Based on the artistic achievements of Pushkin, Nekrasov and Tolstoy showed that the decisive force in the destinies of the country is the people. Both War and Peace and Who Lives Well in Rus' were born precisely from this view of the role of the masses in history.

One of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature of the 19th century is, as you know, the theme of the little man. A bold innovation in the literature of critical realism was the appearance among the heroes of Pushkin and Gogol of an unremarkable person, as if snatched from life itself. You remember, of course, Samson Vyrip (Station Warden) and Akaki Akakievich (Overcoat). Sympathy for this defenseless person who does not belong to the privileged classes is one of the brightest expressions of the humanism of the best writers of the past, their irreconcilable attitude towards social injustice.

However, in the second half of the century, a small man, deprived of self-esteem, meekly bearing the burden of social adversity, a humiliated and insulted man (Dostoevsky) arouses not only compassion but also condemnation among progressive writers. Apparently, in this regard, you will first of all name the stories of Chekhov (The Death of an Official, Thick and Thin), a writer for whom the loss of a person’s self-esteem was tantamount to moral death. Not only Chekhov, but also Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky were convinced that a person should not put up with the position of a worn-out rag.

The social changes that took place in the second half of the 19th century gave rise to the need to embrace Russia with artistic thought in its movement from the past to the present and the future. Hence the emergence of the broadest historical generalizations and deep historical concepts. Without this, neither the Past and us, nor the poem Who Lives Well in Rus', nor the novel What to Do?, nor War and Peace could have been created. But the authors of these works owe much to the experience of their predecessors, to such works as The Bronze Horseman and Dead Souls, which are full of reflections on the fate of Russia. Whatever Russian writers talked about, they always affirmed faith in the possibility of fair social relations, in the feasibility of their high social ideals, which they sought to make available to readers. According to Nekrasov, literature should not retreat one step from its goal - to elevate society to its ideal - the ideal of goodness, light, truth. And a writer as full of anger as Saltykov-Shchedrin, who crushed everything he touched with his indignant laughter, seemed to call for the affirmation of a positive ideal.

Hence the craving of Russian writers for depicting the best people of their time, such as Chatsky, Tatyana Larina, Insarov, Rakhmetov. The very concept of beauty in art, the beautiful in art, merged among Russian writers with the idea of ​​goodness, truth, justice, to the struggle for the triumph of which they called with their creativity.

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Classicism

This direction is worth mentioning when giving a general description of Russian literature of the early 19th century. After all, classicism, which arose a century ago before the beginning of the “Golden Age”, primarily refers to its beginning. This term translated from Latin means “exemplary” and is directly related to the imitation of classical images. This trend arose in France in the 17th century. At its core, it was associated with absolute monarchy and the establishment of the nobility. It is characterized by ideas of high civic themes, strict adherence to the norms of creativity, established rules. Classicism reflects real life in ideal images that gravitate towards a certain model. This direction strictly adheres to the hierarchy of genres - the highest place among them is occupied by tragedy, ode and epic. They illuminate the most important problems for society and are designed to reflect the highest, heroic manifestations of human nature. As a rule, “high” genres were contrasted with “low” ones - fables, comedies, satirical and other works that also reflected reality.

Realism of literature of the second half of the 19th century

Realism acquired classical forms in France in the thirties of the 19th century, and then spread to other countries. The term itself, realism, began to be used later than the phenomenon itself appeared. This direction was theoretically substantiated by Stendhal in the work “Racine and Shakespeare” and Balzac in “The Human Comedy”.

The main features of realism include:

• objectivity and reality;
• departure from canonicity, individual styles prevail over general ones;
• cognition, connection with history, natural science, psychology, sociology;
• an attempt to recreate the world as a complex unity;
• interest in the interaction of the environment and man, typical characters in typical circumstances;
• the social sphere becomes the center of attention;
• the emergence of individual styles combining romantic and realistic elements.

Stendhal, in his treatise On Love, first studies feeling as a scientist, and then describes the stages of its generation.

Sentimentalism

Giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, one cannot fail to mention such a direction as sentimentalism. The narrator's voice plays a big role in it. This direction, as indicated in the table, is characterized by increased attention to a person’s experiences, to his inner world. This is the innovation of sentimentalism. In Russian literature, Karamzin’s “Poor Liza” occupies a special place among the works of sentimentalism.

The words of the writer are noteworthy, which can characterize this direction: “And peasant women know how to love.” Many argued that the ordinary person, the commoner and the peasant, was morally superior in many ways to a nobleman or a member of high society. Landscape plays an important role in sentimentalism. This is not just a description of nature, but a reflection of the inner experiences of the characters.

Features of literature of the second half of the 19th century

Literature of the 2nd half of the nineteenth century deserves special attention. Famous writers of this period created their own world, where heroes solved social problems and experienced their own small tragedies. The main task of the authors was to reflect the events of the century, which was rich in political and social events.

In the second half of the 19th century, connections between writers at the international level intensified. At the same time, the originality of national literatures is manifested. The novel becomes the leading genre of fiction, while drama and poetry fade into the background.

Despite the fact that there has been constant literary controversy, a tendency towards the romantic style is still felt in the work of many writers. It was a kind of coexistence of romanticism and realism, the “penetration” of styles into each other. But it enriched the literature. Even the work of such realists as Balzac, Stendhal, Dickens, Turgenev had this tendency.

Romanticism

This is one of the most controversial phenomena of Russian literature of the Golden Age. For more than a century and a half, there have been debates about what lies at its basis, and no one has yet given any recognized definition to this movement. The representatives of this direction themselves emphasized the uniqueness of the literature of each individual people. One cannot but agree with this opinion - in each country, romanticism acquires its own characteristics. Also, giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth noting that almost all representatives of romanticism advocated for social ideals, but did so in different ways.

Representatives of this movement dreamed not of improving life in its particular manifestations, but of a complete resolution of all contradictions. For many romantics, the prevailing mood in their works is the struggle against evil, protest against the injustice reigning in the world. Romantics also tend to turn to mythology, fantasy, and folk tales. In contrast to the direction of classicism, serious influence is given to the inner world of man.

Directions of literature of the second half of the 19th century

The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the development of realism in art and literature, which replaced romanticism.

• romanticism - this direction is characterized by a sensual and intuitive worldview, an appeal to the inner world of a person, a denial of everyday life, a conflict between reality and desires, exaltation of the spirit, an appeal to mythology and folklore;
• realism - comprehensively reflects the relationship between the environment and man, the influence of historical and social circumstances on the spiritual growth and formation of a person’s personality.