Twice a lie - or effective PR
Daniel Defoe seems, at first glance, to be the author of one great book - Robinson Crusoe. Taking a closer look, we will understand that this is not entirely true: in about five years (1719–1724), he published about a dozen fiction books one after another, important in their own way: for example, “Roxana” (1724) became for many years a model of criminal novel, and “Diary of the Plague Year” (1722) influenced the work of García Márquez. And yet “Robinson Crusoe”, like “The Odyssey”, “The Divine Comedy”, “Don Quixote”, is a completely different level of fame and the basis for long cultural reflection. Robinson became a myth, a titan, an eternal image in art.
On April 25, 1719, a book with a verbose title appeared in London bookstores - “The Life, Extraordinary and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, a sailor from York, who lived for 28 years all alone on an uninhabited island off the coast of America near the mouth of the Orinoco River, where he was thrown by shipwreck , during which the entire crew of the ship, except himself, perished, with an account of his unexpected release by the pirates; written by himself." The original English title contains 65 words . This title is also a sensible annotation for the book: what reader wouldn’t buy it if on the cover there is America and pirates, adventures and a shipwreck, a river with a mysterious name and an uninhabited island. And also a small lie: in the twenty-fourth year, “complete loneliness” ended, Friday appeared.
The second lie is more serious: Robinson Crusoe did not write the book himself, he is a figment of the imagination of the author, who deliberately did not mention himself on the cover of the book. For the sake of good sales, he passed off fiction (artistic fiction) as non-fiction (that is, documentary), stylizing the novel as a memoir. The calculation worked, the circulation was sold out instantly, although the book cost five shillings - the same as a gentleman's formal suit.
Content
Chapter first.
Robinson family.
His escape from his parents' house Chapter two.
First adventures at sea
Chapter Three.
Robinson is captured.
Escape Chapter Four.
Meeting with the savages
Chapter Five.
Robinson settles in Brazil.
He goes back to sea. His ship is wrecked Chapter Six.
Robinson on a desert island.
He gets things from the ship and builds himself a home Chapter Seven.
Robinson for a housewarming party.
The Goat and the Kid Chapter Eight.
Robinson calendar.
Robinson arranges his home Chapter Nine.
Robinson's Diary.
Earthquake Chapter Ten.
Robinson retrieves things from a shipwreck.
He explores the island thoroughly. Illness and melancholy Chapter Eleven.
Robinson continues to explore the island
Chapter Twelve.
Robinson returns to the cave.
His field work Chapter Thirteen.
Robinson makes dishes
Chapter fourteen.
Robinson builds a boat and sews new clothes for himself
Chapter Fifteen.
Robinson builds another boat, smaller in size, and tries to go around the island.
Chapter Sixteen.
Robinson tames wild goats
Chapter Seventeen.
Unexpected alarm.
Robinson strengthens his home Chapter Eighteen.
Robinson becomes convinced that there are cannibals on his island
. Chapter Nineteen.
The savages visit Robinson Island again.
Shipwreck Chapter Twenty.
Robinson tries to leave his island
Chapter twenty-one.
Robinson saves the savage and gives him the name Friday
Chapter Twenty-Two.
Robinson talks with Friday and teaches him
Chapter Twenty-Three.
Robinson and Friday are building a boat
Chapter twenty-four.
Battle with savages.
Robinson frees the Spaniard. Friday finds his father Chapter twenty-five.
New inhabitants of the island.
Arrival of the British Chapter twenty-six.
Robinson meets with the captain of an English ship
Chapter twenty-seven.
Fight with pirates
Chapter twenty-eight.
The captain again becomes the commander of his ship. Robinson leaves the island
Robinson in Russian snows
Already in August of the same year, along with the fourth printing of the novel, Defoe released a sequel - “The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe...” (then again there are a lot of words), also without mentioning the author and also in the form of memoirs. This book told the story of the aging Robinson's round-the-world trip across the Atlantic and Indian Ocean, China and snow-covered Russia, a new visit to the island and the death of Friday in Madagascar. And some time later, in 1720, a real non-fiction about Robinson Crusoe was published - a book of essays on various topics, containing, among other things, a description of Robinson’s vision of the angelic world. In the wake of the popularity of the first book, these two also sold well. In the field of book marketing, Defoe had no equal at that time.
Engraving. Jean Granville
One can only be amazed at the ease with which the writer imitates the easy artlessness of a diary style, despite the fact that he writes at a frantic pace. In 1719, three of his new books were published, including two volumes about Robinson, and in 1720 - four. Some of them are truly documentary prose, the other part are pseudo-memoirs, which are now usually called novels.
Is this a novel?
It is impossible to talk about the genre of the novel in the sense in which we now mean this word at the beginning of the 18th century. During this period in England, there was a process of merging different genre formations (“true story”, “travel”, “book”, “biography”, “description”, “narration”, “romance” and others) into a single concept of the novel genre and gradually an idea of its independent value is formed. However, the word novel is rarely used in the 18th century, and its meaning is still narrow - it’s just a short love story.
Engraving. Jean Granville
Defoe did not position any of his novels as novels, but over and over again used the same marketing ploy - he released fake memoirs without indicating the name of the real author, believing that non-fiction is much more interesting than fiction. The Frenchman Gacienne de Courtille de Sandra (Memoirs of Messire d'Artagnan, 1700) had become famous a little earlier for such pseudo-memoirs - also with long titles. Jonathan Swift, soon after Defoe, took advantage of the same opportunity in “Gulliver’s Travels” (1726–1727), stylized as a diary: although the book described events much more fantastic than Defoe’s, even here there were readers who took the narrator at his word.
Defoe's fake memoirs played a key role in the development of the novel genre. In “Robinson Crusoe,” Defoe proposed a plot that was not just packed with adventure, but kept the reader in suspense (soon the term “suspense” would be coined in England). In addition, the narrative was quite integral - with a clear plot, consistent development of action and a convincing denouement. At that time this was rather rare. For example, the second book about Robinson, alas, could not boast of such integrity.
Daniel Defoe
Defoe Daniel (c. 1660, Cripplegate, - 26.4.1731, Moorfields), English writer and publicist. Graduated from Dissenter College. Participated in the Duke of Monmouth's rebellion against James II. He began his literary activity as the author of the Experience on Projects (1697), which involved economic and social reforms; pamphlets in defense of civil liberties - press and religion; poetic satire The Thoroughbred Englishman (1701) - against the aristocrats who discredited King William III of Orange as not an Englishman; pamphlet in defense of religious tolerance, The Shortest Way to Deal with Dissenters (1702), for which he was sentenced to pillory and imprisonment. Defoe was no stranger to entrepreneurial activity and in the last years of his life was forced to hide from creditors.
Defoe's book The Life and Deeds of Jonathan Wilde (1725) served as the basis for one of G. Fielding's satirical novels. From Defoe's novels - Notes of a Cavalier (1720), Captain Singleton (1720), The History of Colonel Jacques (1722) and others belonging to the adventure genre, Moll Flanders (1722, Russian translation 1896) stands out - about a poor girl who was pushed by social conditions to the path of prostitution and theft, and especially Robinson Crusoe (1719, Russian translation 1762-1764) - about an English merchant who found himself as a result of a shipwreck on a desert island and with his labor created everything necessary for life.
Using the example of Robinson, some bourgeois economists of the 18th and 19th centuries tried to prove that material production was originally of an individual nature. Imbued with the pathos of hard work and optimism, highly appreciated by J. J. Rousseau and L. N. Tolstoy, the novel about Robinson retains its educational value to this day.
Where did Robinson come from?
The plot of “Robinson Crusoe” fell on prepared ground. During Defoe's lifetime, the story of the Scottish sailor Alexander Selkirk was widely known, who, after a quarrel with his captain, spent just over four years on the island of Mas a Tierra in the Pacific Ocean, 640 km from the coast of Chile (now this island is called Robinson Crusoe). Returning to England, he repeatedly spoke in pubs about his adventures and eventually became the subject of a sensational essay by Richard Steele (who, in particular, noted that Selkirk was a good storyteller). Taking a closer look at the history of Selkirk, Defoe, however, replaced the island in the Pacific Ocean with an island in the Caribbean Sea, since there was much more information about this region in the sources available to him.
Engraving. Jean Granville
The second probable source of the plot is “The Tale of Haya, son of Yakzan...” by the 12th century Arab author Ibn Tufail. This is a philosophical novel (again, as far as this term can be applied to a medieval Arabic book) about a hero who has lived on an island since infancy. Either he was sent by his sinful mother across the sea in a chest and thrown onto the island (an obvious allusion to stories from the Old Testament and the Koran), or he “spontaneously generated” from clay already there (both versions are given in the book). Then the hero was fed by a gazelle, learned everything on his own, subjugated the world around him and learned to think abstractly. The book was translated into Latin in 1671 (as “The Self-Taught Philosopher”), and in 1708 into English (as “The Improvement of the Human Mind”). This novel influenced European philosophy (for example, J. Locke) and literature (the type of narrative that the Germans in the 19th century would call the “novel of education”).
Defoe also saw a lot of interesting things in him. The plot of understanding the surrounding world and conquering nature went well with the new Enlightenment idea of a person who intelligently arranges his life. True, the hero of Ibn Tufail acts without knowing anything about civilization; Robinson, on the contrary, being a civilized person, reproduces the signs of civilization in his own country. From the half-sunken ship, he takes three Bibles, navigational instruments, weapons, gunpowder, clothes, a dog and even money (though they were useful only at the end of the novel). He did not forget the language, prayed daily and consistently observed religious holidays, built a fortress house, a fence, made furniture, a tobacco pipe, began to sew clothes, keep a diary, started a calendar, began to use the usual measures of weight, length, volume, and established a daily routine : “In the foreground were religious duties and the reading of the Holy Scriptures... The second of the daily tasks was hunting... The third was the sorting, drying and cooking of killed or caught game.”
Here, perhaps, you can see Defoe’s main ideological message (it exists, despite the fact that the book about Robinson was clearly written and published as a commercial, sensational one): a modern man of the third estate, relying on his reason and experience, is able to independently arrange his life in complete harmony with the achievements of civilization. This author’s idea fits well with the ideology of the Age of Enlightenment with its acceptance of Cartesian epistemology (“I think, therefore I am”), Lockean empiricism (a person receives all the material of reasoning and knowledge from experience) and a new idea of the active personality, rooted in Protestant ethics. The latter is worth looking into in more detail.
Brief summary of the novel "Robinson Crusoe" in detail by chapters
Chapter 1
Since childhood, Robinson dreamed of sea voyages, but his parents were strongly against it. For a long time he did not dare to go against their will, but one day, while in the city of Gull, he met a friend who persuaded him to make his first sea voyage to London.
Chapter 2
Waiting for a fair wind, the ship anchored in Yarmouth and remained there for several days. On the ninth day a real storm began. The team managed to escape on a boat sent to their aid. Robinson was very scared. He already wanted to return to his parents, but instead headed to London.
Chapter 3
In London, Robinson met an old captain who wanted to help him. He took the young man on the next flight, advising him to take with him beads, glass, and various trinkets. In Africa, Robinson profitably exchanged all this for gold.
The first success inspired Robinson, and he decided to try his luck again. Unfortunately, the ship was attacked by Turkish pirates, and Robinson was captured. He spent two long years in captivity. In the third year, he, along with the boy Xuri, managed to escape on his master's boat.
Chapter 4
The slow advance to the south continued for almost a month. Finally, reaching Cape Verde, Robinson saw a Portuguese ship. The boat was also spotted from the ship and the fugitives were picked up. Robinson learned that the ship was heading to Brazil.
Chapter 5
Having sold some things to the captain, Robinson decided to start growing sugar cane. Having bought the plantation, he barely made ends meet for the first two years. But gradually the business began to bring good profits. Robinson met other planters and often told them about his amazing journey to Africa.
One day, new friends, dreaming of fabulous wealth, suggested that Robinson again engage in trade with wild tribes. He agreed and boarded a ship bound for Guinea.
After a few days of sailing, a terrible storm broke out. Eleven people, including Robinson, were able to get into the boat and tried to get to shore. The boat capsized; Robinson alone swam to land with incredible difficulty.
Chapter 6
In the morning Robinson saw a ship not far from the shore that had been carried there by a storm. He realized that another storm would break him, and decided, before it was too late, to take all the necessary things from the ship.
Having reached the ship by swimming, Robinson began to inspect it. Fortunately, almost everything survived. Having built a raft, Robinson transported the first batch of things ashore on the first day: provisions, tools, weapons, etc. For almost a month, he transported various items from the ship, including sails and ropes.
Robinson examined the area from the hill and realized that he was on a desert island. Having chosen a suitable place, he began to build a dwelling.
Chapter 7
Robinson set up a tent and surrounded it with a strong palisade. Immediately behind the tent, he began digging a cave that could serve as a cellar. While examining the island, he was pleased to learn that there were goats on it.
Chapter 8
At first it was very difficult for Robinson. He was especially depressed by the thought that he would have to spend his whole life alone on the island. Work allowed the poor hermit to be distracted. Robinson worked tirelessly every day: he strengthened the palisade, expanded the cave, and started making simple furniture.
Robinson took writing materials from the ship and for some time began keeping a diary.
Chapter 9
Robinson's diary from September 30, 1659 to April 30, 1660:
Robinson describes the first six months of his stay on the island: transporting things from the ship, hard work, hunting goats and birds, making primitive tools (shovels, troughs, foot grinders, etc.). Two events deserve special attention.
One day Robinson noticed that barley and rice were growing next to his cave. It turned out that they sprouted from the rubbish that remained in one of the bags. This allowed Robinson to begin growing both crops.
Another important event was an unexpected earthquake, which greatly frightened Robinson. He began to look for a safer place to live.
Chapter 10
Robinson's diary from May 1 to September 30, 1660:
The earthquake threw the remains of the broken ship closer to the shore. Robinson took everything that could still be useful. In June he fell very seriously ill with fever and feared for his life for two weeks.
In mid-July Robinson decided to explore the entire island. To the north he discovered a beautiful valley in which various fruits grew. He liked the place so much that he built a “dacha” there.
A year has already passed of Robinson's stay on the island.
Chapter 11
Robinson began to weave baskets, which were very useful to him for carrying and storing various things. He also explored the opposite shore of the island, from which he saw some land about forty miles away. In this place he found many turtles and birds. Having caught one parrot, Robinson brought it to him and began to teach it to speak.
Chapter 12
In December, Robinson built a fence around the field (to protect against wild animals) and reaped a good harvest of barley and rice. Now he had grain, but a new problem arose: how to get flour and bake bread?
Chapter 13
Robinson did not have any dishes, so he decided to learn pottery. After many unsuccessful attempts, he began to produce unsightly clay vessels. Having guessed to burn them in the fire, Robinson finally made a pot and cooked the broth for the first time. Then he made a mortar and pestle. Having ground the flour, Robinson was able to bake bread. By this time he had been on the island for three years.
Chapter 14
Robinson was haunted by the thought of escaping from the desert island. To this end, he began to build a pirogue. Having cut down a huge tree and spending an incredible amount of time and effort, Robinson made a large boat. However, the idea turned out to be stupid: it was impossible to pull the pirogue out of the forest into the sea.
Clothing that protected from the scorching sun and rain gradually wore out. Robinson learned to sew rough jackets and trousers from animal skins.
Chapter 15
Another five years passed. During this time, Robinson made another boat, smaller than the first, and was able to launch it. He wanted to drive it around the island. The voyage almost ended in tragedy. The boat was caught in a strong current that could have carried it out to sea. Robinson was incredibly lucky to be able to return to the island.
A new problem was the running out of gunpowder.
Chapter 16
The problem with gunpowder made Robinson think about food. He found a solution in goat breeding. Having caught several kids, Robinson tamed them and within a year and a half raised a whole herd, grazing in several paddocks.
Chapter 17
In the fifteenth year of “imprisonment” on the island, Robinson, walking along the shore, suddenly saw the imprint of a human foot. In horror, he ran to his home and did not go out for three days. Gradually the fear passed; Robinson decided that this was his trace. However, returning to this place and comparing the prints, he realized that there was someone on the island, most likely savages from the neighboring islands.
This time Robinson acted more thoughtfully. He camouflaged his home even more carefully by planting trees around it. The savages would never have been able to find him in the dense forest.
Chapter 18
Two years later, Robinson discovered human skulls and bones on the west coast of the island, lying near the remains of a fire. He realized that cannibalistic savages often landed at this place. From that time on, Robinson began to behave very carefully, constantly fearing a sudden attack.
An unexpected gift of fate was Robinson's discovery of a huge cave, the entrance to which was not easy to find. This cave could become a safe refuge. Robinson carried the most valuable things into it: weapons and gunpowder.
Chapter 19
One morning Robinson saw that a fire was burning not far from his home on the shore. He quickly took all the necessary defensive measures, climbed the hill and aimed a telescope at the fire. There were savages on the shore. When they left the island, Robinson came to this place and discovered human remains. This sight outraged the hermit so much that he decided to try to kill the cannibals next time. But months passed, and no new “guests” appeared.
One night Robinson heard a cannon shot. Soon another one was heard. A storm raged, and Robinson realized that a ship was sinking near the island. All night he kept a huge fire going, hoping that it would help people escape. Only in the morning, through a telescope, Robinson saw the remains of a ship crashed on the rocks. The entire team, apparently, died...
Chapter 20
Soon Robinson found the corpse of a drowned cabin boy on the shore. He thought that perhaps someone had managed to survive on the wrecked ship, and decided to get to it by boat. The only living creature on the ship was a dog. In addition, Robinson found some things there: food, wine, gunpowder.
After this incident, the unfortunate man felt his loneliness even more strongly. He decided to definitely attack the cannibals next time, free the captives and, with their help, escape from the island.
Chapter 21
The opportunity presented itself almost two years later. About thirty cannibals landed ashore with four captives. Robinson saw one of the victims start running towards his home. He killed one of the pursuers and saved the poor fellow's life.
Robinson calmed the savage and took him to his place. He named his new friend Friday, fed him, sewed clothes and began to teach him English.
Chapter 22
Finally, Robinson had a comrade. Soon Friday learned to speak English with ease, began to help with work, and told a lot of useful information. Robinson realized that he was in the Caribbean islands, where wild tribes lived. According to Friday, the “white people” can be easily reached by a large boat.
Chapter 23
Friday became very attached to his savior and obeyed him in everything. He even vowed to never eat human flesh again. After examining Robinson's boat, Friday said that it was impossible to go to sea on it.
Robinson, having found an assistant, decided to make a new boat. Together, they built it in a month and launched it into the water. Robinson sewed the sails and installed the mast and rudder. All that remained was to wait for favorable weather for sailing.
Chapter 24
The plan was suddenly interrupted by a new visit from the cannibals with three captives. Robinson decided to fight them. There were nineteen enemies, but they had never encountered firearms. The shots threw them into panic, and the victory was complete. Only three savages managed to sail away on the pirogue.
Robinson and Friday managed to save Friday's father, as well as one Spaniard.
Chapter 25
The Spaniard said that several more of his comrades live in Friday’s tribe, dreaming of returning to their homeland. Robinson was very happy about this: several people could make a ship strong enough to reach civilization. He sent the Spaniard along with Friday's father to the tribe in his boat to bring the rest.
Several days passed in anticipation. Suddenly an English ship appeared near the island. The boat lowered from it moored to the shore. Among those who landed, Robinson noticed three prisoners. Vague suspicions prevented him from greeting his compatriots.
Chapter 26
Some of the sailors went deeper into the island, the rest fell asleep. No one guarded the prisoners. Robinson carefully crept up to them and learned that it was the captain of the ship and his companions. The crew rebelled and declared themselves pirates.
Robinson freed and armed the captives, making them promise to deliver him to England. They killed two rebels, the rest surrendered themselves.
Chapter 27
There were still more than twenty people left on the ship. Ten pirates, without waiting for their comrades, landed on the shore in a boat. Leaving the guards, they began to comb the island. Robinson ordered Friday to lure the enemies away, and he, along with the rest of his companions, suddenly attacked the guards and captured the boat.
The pirates who returned to the shore at night were frightened, believing that there was evil spirits on the island. Hearing the captain's menacing voice in the darkness, they immediately surrendered.
Chapter 28
Robinson's squad increased to twelve people, as sincerely repentant sailors who became pirates under the influence of threats were included in it. Led by the captain, they attacked the ship at night and won without much difficulty.
The five prisoners were awaiting the gallows in England, so Robinson showed them his entire household and offered to stay on the island. The pirates happily agreed. He himself, taking the things dear to his heart, boarded the ship and finally set off for his homeland. He spent a little over twenty-eight years on a desert island.
Robinson's parents had long since died, but his sisters and their children greeted him with joyful surprise. The whole day was spent on Robinson's extraordinary story about his adventures.
Tables of Protestant Ethics
Robinson's life consists of rules and traditions defined by his native culture. Robinson's father, an honest representative of the middle class, extols the “middle state” (that is, the Aristotelian golden mean), which in this case consists of a reasonable acceptance of one’s lot in life: Crusoe’s family is relatively wealthy and there is no point in refusing “the position occupied by birth in the world.” Having cited his father’s apology for the average state, Robinson continues: “And although (this is how the father ended his speech) he will never stop praying for me, he declares to me directly that if I do not give up my crazy idea, I will not have the blessing of God.” . Judging by the plot of the novel, it took Robinson many years and trials to understand the essence of his father’s warning.
Engraving. Jean Granville
On the island, he retraced the path of human development - from gathering to colonialism. Leaving the island at the end of the novel, he positions himself as its owner (and in the second book, returning to the island, he behaves like the local viceroy).
The notorious “middle state” and burgher morality in this case are completely combined with the bad idea of the 18th century about the inequality of races and the admissibility of the slave trade and slavery. At the beginning of the novel, Robinson found it possible to sell the boy Xuri, with whom he escaped from Turkish captivity; Afterwards, if not for the shipwreck, he planned to engage in the slave trade. The first three words Robinson taught Friday were “yes,” “no,” and “master.”
Whether Defoe wanted it consciously or not, his hero turned out to be an excellent portrait of a man of the third estate in the 18th century, with his support for colonialism and slavery, a rational business approach to life, and religious restrictions. Most likely, Robinson is what Defoe himself was. Robinson doesn't even try to find out Friday's real name; The author is also not very interested in it.
Robinson is a Protestant. In the text of the novel, his exact religious affiliation is not indicated, but since Defoe himself (like his father) was a Presbyterian, it is logical to assume that his hero, Robinson, also belongs to the Presbyterian church. Presbyterianism is one of the directions of Protestantism, based on the teachings of John Calvin; in fact, it is a type of Calvinism. Robinson inherited this belief from his German father, an emigrant from Bremen who once bore the name Kreuzner.
Protestants insist that there is no need for priests as intermediaries to communicate with God. So the Protestant Robinson believed that he communicated with God directly. By communication with God, as a Presbyterian, he meant only prayer; he did not believe in the sacraments.
Without mental communication with God, Robinson would quickly go crazy. He prays and reads the Holy Scriptures every day. With God he does not feel alone even in the most extreme circumstances.
This, by the way, correlates well with the story of Alexander Selkirk, who, in order not to go crazy from loneliness on the island, read the Bible aloud every day and sang psalms loudly.
One of the restrictions that Robinson religiously observes looks curious (Defoe does not specifically dwell on this point, but it is clearly visible from the text) - this is the habit of always walking dressed on a desert tropical island. Apparently, the hero cannot bare himself before God, constantly feeling his presence nearby. In one scene - where Robinson swims to a half-sunken ship near the island - he entered the water “undressed”, and then, while on the ship, he was able to use his pockets, which means he still did not completely undress.
Protestants - Calvinists, Presbyterians - were confident that it was possible to determine which people were loved by God and which were not. This can be seen from the signs that you need to be able to observe. One of the most important is luck in business, which greatly increases the value of work and its material results. Once on the island, Robinson tries to understand his situation with the help of a table in which he carefully writes down all the pros and cons. Their number is equal, but this gives Robinson hope. Further, Robinson works hard and through the results of his work he feels the mercy of the Lord.
Equally important are the numerous warning signs that do not stop young Robinson. The first ship on which he set off sank (“Conscience, which at that time had not yet completely hardened in me,” says Robinson, “severely reproached me for neglecting my parents’ admonitions and for violating my duties to God and my father,” - this means neglect of the given lot in life and father’s admonitions). Another ship was captured by Turkish pirates. Robinson set off on the most ill-fated of his journeys exactly eight years later, to the day after escaping from his father, who warned him against unwise steps. Already on the island, he sees a dream: a terrible man, engulfed in flames, descends from the sky towards him and wants to hit him with a spear for his wickedness.
Defoe persistently conveys the idea that one should not commit daring acts and radically change one’s life without special signs from above, that is, in essence, he constantly condemns pride (despite the fact that he most likely does not consider Robinson’s colonialist habits to be pride).
Gradually, Robinson becomes more and more inclined towards religious thoughts. At the same time, he clearly separates the spheres of the miraculous and the everyday. Seeing ears of barley and rice on the island, he gives thanks to God; then he remembers that he himself shook out a bag of bird food at this place: “The miracle disappeared, and along with the discovery that all this was the most natural thing, I must admit, my gratitude to Providence cooled significantly.”
When Friday appears on the island, the main character tries to instill in him his own religious ideas. He is baffled by the natural question about the origin and essence of evil, the most difficult for most believers: why does God tolerate the devil? Robinson does not give a direct answer; after thinking for a while, he suddenly likens the devil to a man: “You better ask why God didn’t kill you or me when we did bad things that offended Him; we were spared so that we would repent and receive forgiveness.”
The main character himself was dissatisfied with his answer - nothing else came to his mind. In general, Robinson eventually comes to the conclusion that he is not very successful in interpreting complex theological issues.
In the last years of his life on the island, something else brought him sincere joy: prayer together with Friday, a joint feeling of the presence of God on the island.
Robinson Crusoe
Chapter 1
Robinson Crusoe
My father was from Bremen. Having made a good fortune through trade, he moved to England, where he married my mother, who came from the venerable Robinson family. I was born in 1632 in the city of York; I was given the name Robinson, and my father’s surname was Kreutzner, but, following the British custom of simplifying foreign sounds, they changed it into Crusoe. I already had sisters and two older brothers, whose fate was sad, although our home was considered one of the most prosperous. The elder brother rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the English infantry regiment and was killed near Dunkirchen in a battle against the Spaniards. What happened to the other one, I know little - I remember only his vague image, flashed and disappeared in my childhood.
I was a late child of my kind parents, and my aging father tried to give me the education that could be acquired by being brought up at home or attending a common school. Dejected by the choice of military profession of his eldest son and the restless character of his middle one, he really wanted me to become a lawyer, but I liked nothing except sea travel. Too early I began to dream of distant travels, and this passion, despite the requests of my mother to come to my senses and contrary to the wishes of my father, only intensified with age. I had no idea then where it would lead me.
My father, a sensible and prudent man, in the hope of influencing my choice, one morning invited me to his room and unexpectedly spoke warmly to me. What reason, other than the destructive tendency to travel, forces me to leave my homeland and my father’s house?
“Only adventurers, people seeking easy money,” he continued, “people who are not capable of daily work, or ambitious people embark on adventures and seek dubious fame.” Recklessness does not decorate a person; it is contrary to the norm. The experience of my life has shown that the best position in the world is connected with the well-being of a person. Diseases, physical and mental torment occur less often in it, it is devoid of luxury and vices; tranquility and modest prosperity are faithful companions of a happy mean...
I listened to him silently.
“Finally stop being childish,” said the father. - Settle down. You don’t need a piece of bread, you are surrounded by attention and love, we all wish you only the best. However, if you still do it your own way and are not happy, blame yourself, your mistakes - that’s my warning. If you still decide to stay with us and listen to my advice, I am ready to do a lot for you. After all, my heart always hurts at the thought of your death, in which I do not intend to take part...
I felt sincerely sorry for my father; I was ready to give up my dream and stay in my parents' house, but soon the good intentions evaporated like dew in the sun, and a few weeks later I decided to sneak away!
But doubts did not leave me, and one day, noticing that my mother was in a good mood, I, alone with her, whispered:
- Mother, the desire to wander is so strong in me that I cannot concentrate on anything else. It would be much better for my father if he agreed with my plans and agreed to their implementation. He would not put me in the position of an ungrateful son. I am eighteen years old and it’s too late to become an apprentice to a merchant or a clerk to a lawyer; I am sure that even if I do this, I will certainly break the condition, leave the owner and board the first ship I come across. If you want to put in a good word for me with my father so that he himself will let me go on a long journey, then I will soon return home and will not move again. I promise to earn your forgiveness with double diligence for all the lost time.
The mother looked confused and worried.
“This is completely impossible,” she exclaimed, “your father will never meet you halfway!” Don't ask, I won't talk to him for anything. And not only because you are stubborn even after your conversation, but also because I completely agree with his view of your life. I don’t support you and I don’t want it to be said about me that I blessed a disastrous enterprise that my husband doesn’t like.
Later I found out that she told my father everything verbatim.
“Our son,” he sighed sadly in response, “could have been happy by staying with us.” If a guy goes to scour the world, he will not only lose the warmth of his native nest, but in addition he will acquire a bunch of troubles and troubles. I will never come to terms with this!
And yet I did not lose hope and constantly refused offers to do something more substantial than fruitless fantasies. I tried to prove to my parents the impossibility of any changes in myself. But another year passed before I managed to escape from home...
One day an old friend of mine, who was sailing to London from Hull on his father’s ship, persuaded me to go with him. I was seduced by the common bait of all sailors: he offered to take me to the capital for free. I immediately agreed and, without asking my parents’ permission, without notifying them even by a hint, on September 1, 1651, I boarded my first ship in my life. Now it seems to me that it was a bad act: like a tramp, I abandoned my elderly father and kind mother and violated my filial duty. And very soon I had to bitterly repent of this!
As soon as the ship entered the open sea, a hurricane wind rose and strong rolling began. This stunned such a novice in maritime affairs as I was then - my head was spinning, the deck was disappearing from under my feet, and nausea was rising in my throat. It seemed to me that we were about to drown. I almost lost consciousness and became so dispirited that I was ready to admit that I had been struck by heavenly punishment. As the rough seas intensified, a panicked decision matured in me: as soon as I set foot on solid ground, I would immediately return to my parents’ house and never board a ship again.
Robinson's legacy
Although Defoe saved the main philosophical and ethical content for the last, third book about Robinson, time turned out to be wiser than the author: Defoe’s most profound, integral and influential book was recognized as the first volume of this trilogy (characteristically, the latter was not even translated into Russian).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau in the didactic novel “Emile, or On Education” (1762) called “Robinson Crusoe” the only book useful for children's reading. The plot situation of a desert island, described by Defoe, is considered by Rousseau as an educational game, which the child should become familiar with through reading.
Engraving. Jean Granville
In the 19th century, several variations on the Robinson theme were created, including Robert Ballantyne's Coral Island (1857), Jules Verne's The Mysterious Island (1874), and Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island (1882). In the second half of the 20th century, “Robinsonade” was rethought in the light of current philosophical and psychological theories - “Lord of the Flies” by William Golding (1954), “Friday, or Pacific Limb” (1967) and “Friday, or the Wild Life” (1971) by Michel Tournier , Mister Fo (1984) by John Maxwell Coetzee. Luis Buñuel set surreal and psychoanalytic accents in the film Robinson Crusoe (1954).
Now, in the 21st century, in the light of new reflections on the coexistence of a number of different cultures, Defoe's novel is still relevant. The relationship between Robinson and Friday is an example of the interaction of races as it was understood three centuries ago. Using a specific example, the novel makes you think: what has changed over the years and in what ways the authors’ views are certainly outdated? In terms of worldview, Defoe's novel perfectly illustrates the ideology of the Enlightenment in its British version. However, now we are much more interested in the question of the essence of man in general. Let us recall the aforementioned novel by Golding “Lord of the Flies”, in which the abodes of the island do not develop, like Defoe’s, but, on the contrary, degrade and show base instincts. What is he, a person, really like, what is more in him - creative or destructive? In essence, here one can see a cultural reflection on the Christian concept of original sin.
As for the author’s religious ideas, the average reader’s idea of a golden mean will probably not cause objections, which cannot be said about the condemnation of daring actions in general. In this regard, the author's philosophy can be considered bourgeois and bourgeois. Such ideas would be condemned, for example, by representatives of romantic literature at the beginning of the 19th century.
Despite this, Defoe's novel continues to live. This is explained by the fact that “Robinson Crusoe” is, first of all, a sensational text, not a didactic one; it captivates with images, plot, exoticism, and does not teach. The meanings contained in it are present, rather, latently, and therefore it raises questions rather than giving complete answers. This is the key to the long life of a literary work. Reading it again and again, each generation thinks about the questions that arise and answers them in its own way.
Interesting Facts:
The first translation of Robinson Crusoe into Russian was published in 1762. It was translated by Yakov Trusov under the title “The Life and Adventures of Robinson Cruz, a Natural Englishman.” The classic, most often reprinted complete translation of the text into Russian was published in 1928 by Maria Shishmareva (1852–1939), and since 1955 it has been reprinted many times.
Leo Tolstoy in 1862 made his retelling of the first volume of Robinson Crusoe for his pedagogical magazine Yasnaya Polyana.
There are 25 film adaptations of Robinson Crusoe (including animation). The first was made in 1902, the last - in 2021. The role of Robinson was played by such actors as Douglas Farnbex, Pavel Kadochnikov, Peter O'Toole, Leonid Kuravlev, Pierce Brosnan, Pierre Richard.
